Group+4

=**Isaac Newton's Discoveries **= (Group 4: Victoria Cheng, Choy Yun Zhen, Andrea Koo, Chiang Ling Ling, Choo Yun Ting)

The period in which Newton was born was a transitional period, bridging old sciences and theories into a more modern way of thinking. Newton's work was a mix of different theories and philosophies(combining and relating contributions by Nicholas Copernicus, JOhannes Kepler, Galileo etc), but he brought to it an extraordinary mind and an unmatched command of mathematics. He shared the Cartesians' [Re **//né Descartes //** //( // //French pronunciation: // [|//[ʁəne dekaʁt//]] //), (31 March 1596 – 11 February 1650), also known as Renatus Cartesius ( //[|//Latinized//] //form), // //was a // [|//French philosopher//] //, // [|//mathematician//] //, //[|//physicist//] //, and writer who spent most of his adult life in the // <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">[|//Dutch Republic//] //<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">. He has been dubbed the "Father of Modern Philosophy"] // <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"> belief in the power of mathematics to describe nature, but he disliked their dry logic. He also disagreed with their indifference to studying the behaviour of objects in nature. Newton had an obsessive personality and would work on a problem for months or years at a time, just to get a conclusion or result. He dismantled the larger question into its component parts and studied them to exhaustion. If he lacked the tools to do his experiments properly, newton would build his own. Newton united the concept of experimental science and mathematics through using what he discovered with calculus to explain laws and theories, the reason behind why things were the way they were. It was said that he "overturned the authority of Middle Ages and the classical world."(Steven Kreis, 2002)
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">About Newton **[[image:http://t0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:P6_04is0Vsu3sM:http://www.crystalinks.com/newton.jpg width="1" height="120" align="right"]]<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Issac Newton (25 December 1642 – 20 March 1727) was an English physicist, mathematician, astronomer, natural philosopher, alchemist, and theologian.Isaac who is considered to be one of the most influential men in history.

**<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Newton's contributions include: ** <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"> - **<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Description of universal gravity - Newton's 3 laws of motion - by building on the discoveries of [|Kepler,] [|Galileo] and [|Copernicus], He had uncovered essential laws that are universally applicable to the new science of man. - Lay the groundwork for classical mechanic from these "discoveries" - Basis for modern engineering (he had practical ideas) - Showed that the motions of objects on Earth and of celestial bodies are governed by the same set of natural laws: DEMONSTRATING THE CONSISTENCY BETWEEN KEPLER'S LAWS OF PLANETARY MOTION AND HIS THEORY OF GRAVITATION, THUS REMOVING THE LAST DOUBTS ABOUT HELIOCENTRISM AND ADVANCING THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION. --> Universal gravitation offered a single system for understanding motion in the heavens and on earth. - In mechanics, enunciated the principles of conservation of momentum and angular momentum - In optics, he built the first "practical" reflecting telescope and developed a theory of colour based on the observation that a prism decomposes white light into a visible spectrum - Formulated an empirical law of cooling and studied the speed of sound. - math: Newton shares credit with Gottfried Leibniz for the development of the differential and integral calculus - Demonstrated the generalised binomial theorem, developed the so-called "newton's method" for approximating the zeroes of a function, and contributed to the study of power series - weaved Christianity and Science --> Bridged the gap between the two. ** //<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">(to stop viewing the world as an orgnanic thing but more mechanical. --> with this change, magical beliefs and logic based on common sense was scrapped) //
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">- Helped to increase the acceptance of Copernicanism. ** <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"> --> by tying up everything and closed the case on the debate of the helliocentric theory because he managed to prove it right. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">

His publications include:
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Method of Fluxions (1671)
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Of Natures Obvious Laws & Processes in Vegetation (unpublished, c. 1671–75)[99]
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">De Motu Corporum in Gyrum (1684)
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687)
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Opticks (1704)
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Reports as Master of the Mint (1701–25)
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Arithmetica Universalis (1707)
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The System of the World, Optical Lectures, The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms, (Amended) and De mundi systemate (published posthumously in 1728)
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Observations on Daniel and The Apocalypse of St. John (1733)
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">An Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture (1754)


 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">In Science: **


 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Newton's 3 Laws of Motion: **<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">

I) Every object in the state of uniform motion tends to remain in that state of motion unless an external force is applied to it. Also called the law of inertia, in which an object resists changing its velocity. Thus, an object at rest remains at rest, and a moving object continues moving with a constant velocity. It refined the ancient theory of how the force exerted in order to move an object must come into contact with the object.
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">NOTE: **<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Galileo also performed an experiment that described inertia correctly. Newton built on Galileo's work and summed up his findings in this law.

II) The relationship between an object's mass **//<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">m //**<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">, its acceleration //<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">a //<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">, and the applied force //<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">F //<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> is //<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">F **<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">= m **<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">a //<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">. Acceleration and force are vectors (as indicated by their symbols being displayed in slant bold font); in this law the direction of the force vector is the same as the direction of the acceleration vector. This law explains the concept of momentum(the product of the mass of the object multiplied with its velocity; momentum = **<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">mv. **<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Hence, this explains the reason behind a lighter car sustaining more damage then a heavier car, even if they are traveling at similar speeds.

III) For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. in the case of rockets, it is the combustion of fuel (action) that provides the thrust (reaction), which is necessary for liftoff

Importance/Significance: Helped engineers design new kinds of working parts for machinery. Push and pull of gravitation showed geographers that Earth was not a perfect sphere. Math of gravity could be used to predict the ebb and flow of tides, even in waters where European ships had never sailed, a gigantic leap in an age of seaborne empires and maritime trade.

The //<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Principia: //<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Book I of the //<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Principia // <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">states the foundations of the science of mechanics, developing upon them the mathematics of orbital motion round centres of force. Newton identified gravitation as the fundamental force controlling the motions of the celestial bodies. He never found its cause. To contemporaries who found the idea of attractions across empty space unintelligible, he conceded that they might prove to be caused by the impacts of unseen particles. Book II inaugurates the theory of fluids: Newton solves problems of fluids in movement and of motion through fluids. From the density of air he calculated the speed of sound waves. Book III shows the law of gravitation at work in the universe: Newton demonstrates it from the revolutions of the six known planets, including the Earth, and their satellites. However, he could never quite perfect the difficult theory of the Moon's motion. Comets were shown to obey the same law; in later editions, Newton added conjectures on the possibility of their return. He calculated the relative masses of heavenly bodies from their gravitational forces, and the oblateness of Earth and Jupiter, already observed. He explained tidal ebb and flow and the precession of the equinoxes from the forces exerted by the Sun and Moon. All this was done by exact computation.
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">[MECHANICS AND GRAVITATION] **
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation **<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">

Newton refined Galileo's theory of inertia and suggested that equal and opposing forces of motion were at work wen any two objects came into contact. Instead of offering a mechanist's explanation, based on invisible swirling particles, newton wanted a single clear mathematical description of forces at work. Newton explained universal gravitation with the clarity of mathematics. This law is a descriptive law and it offered a single system for understanding motion in the heavens and on earth. " Gravity prevents objects from flying off the face of the Earth & holds the whole system of sun and planets together by keeping them in their orbits".

//<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The force of attraction between any two bodies in the Universe is proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of their distance apart. //

Importance/Significance: Galileo determined that all objects fall with equal acceleration, that ignoring factors such as air and other sources of friction, two objects of differing weights would accelerate at ths same rate during free fall. However, Newton was the one who linked this to mathematics, and supported his explanation of Gravity with mathematic calculations. He applied the math of his 3 laws of motion to the concept of gravitational acceleration, Newton proved that the acceleration of a free fall of an object is dependent on the force of gravity, and the force is not affceted by the movement of the object. His discovery also distinguised mass from weight, as weight is affected by the amount of attraction between the object and Earth, also the force of Gravity.


 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The Newtonian Telescope **

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The Newtonian Telescope is a type of reflecting telescope which Newton built to try to prove his theory that white light consisted of a spectrum of colours, and was not a whole entity as previously believed. This telescope focused colours accurately and produced much clearer images.The idea wasn't new, Galileo and Sagredo (a friend of Galileo's) had been discussing the idea before Newton and James Gregory had been trying to build a telescope with parabolic mirrors but wasn't successful, among other examples. However, he was the first person to successfully build such a telescope, with his first reflecting telescope completed in 1668, and is the earliest known functional reflecting telescope. U <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">sing a [|concave] [|primary mirror] and a flat diagonal secondary mirror.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Importance/Significance:


 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">They are free of [|chromatic aberration] found in refracting telescopes.
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Newtonian telescopes are usually less expensive for any given aperture than comparable quality telescopes of other types. (Since only one optical surface has to be machined to perfection, again, the expense is less and the chances of getting an optically perfect scope for a smaller price tag become greater)
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Since there is only one surface that needs to be ground and polished into a complex shape, overall fabrication is far simpler than other telescope designs
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">A short [|focal ratio] can be more easily obtained, leading to wider [|field of view]. ( <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 24px;">ecause the parabola can be changed, the Newtonian telescope can vary greatly in focal lengths – the distance the light must travel to reach a focal point. This allows the user to choose a long focal length telescope for more <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 24px;">__[|magnification]__ <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 24px;"> factors and photographic abilities – or a short focal length for portability and wider fields of view.)
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 24px;">Because light does not pass through the mirror, exotic glasses aren't necessary – only a glass capable of holding the configuration and coatings count here! In <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 24px;">__[|refractor]__ <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 24px;"> telescopes, large lenses sag under the weight of gravity, while large mirrors do not – therefore very, very large telescopes must be the Newtonian design.


 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The eyepiece is located at the top end of the telescope. Combined with short f-[|ratios]this can allow for a much more compact mounting system, reducing cost and adding to portability.
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">This was an important invention as one can get a far larger light gathering surface at a far more economical price, which was important during those times as it was more easy to come by, and also a lot easier to manufacture "in bulk".

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">In Optics:
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">He investigated the refraction of light by a glass prism; developing over a few years a series of increasingly elaborate, refined, and exact experiments, Newton discovered measurable, mathematical patterns in the phenomenon of colour. He found white light to be a mixture of infinitely varied coloured rays (manifest in the rainbow and the spectrum)[ie. Each "colour" of light was a component of white light], each ray definable by the angle through which it is refracted on entering or leaving a given transparent medium(ie. Colours came into focus at different distances) He correlated this notion with his study of the interference colours of thin films (for example, of oil on water, or soap bubbles), using a simple technique of extreme acuity to measure the thickness of such films. He held that light consisted of streams of minute particles. From his experiments he could infer the magnitudes of the transparent "corpuscles" forming the surfaces of bodies, which, according to their dimensions, so interacted with white light as to reflect, selectively, the different observed colours of those surfaces.

Newton improved ordinary prisms in order to understand the nature of light and colour.

In Math: **

=
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">From 1664 to 1666, Isaac made his greatest contributions to mathematics. Relying on the works of Galileo, Kepler, and Descartes, Newton invented calculus, discovered the law of universal gravitation, and he did extensive work on spectrums. ======

=
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Newton has many contributions to mathematics. His works included algebra, geometry and calculus. In the years of 1664 and 1665 he discovered the binomial theorem was applicable to fractional integers and exponents. Newton came up with 5 rules on limits which put a universal method of finding limits of any equation into the hands of every mathematician. These works and the infinite series led Newton to complete his greatest discovery in mathematics, Calculus. ======

=
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 18px;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">[|Differential Calculus] and <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">[|Integral Calculus]. Differential calculus determines the rate of change of a quantity, integral calculus finds the quantity where the rate of change is known. ====== <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Newton is also especially famous for his solutions to the contemporary problems in analytical geometry of drawing tangents to curves (differentiation) and defining areas bounded by curves (integration). Not only did Newton discover that these problems were inverse to each other, but he discovered general methods of resolving problems of curvature, embraced in his "method of fluxions" and "inverse method of fluxions", respectively equivalent to Leibniz's later differential and integral calculus.

Newtons's mathematical contribution were not his only discoveries. His work in mechanics led him to the famous laws of gravity. Also he greatly contributed to the philosophies of movement. By leaving the philosophical views out of his work he began to discover logical reasons for every reaction. The leaving of philosophy views out of his work allowed him to discover logical reasons for every reaction. This caused a great stir in the intellectual world. This led to scientists using a new way of thinking, using logic and experimenting as absolute proll.

__**<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Timeline of Key Events **__


 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">25 December 1642 - Birth of Isaac Newton
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">1661 - Enrolls in Trinity College, Cambridge
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">1665-7 - Develops binomial theorem, Invents the calculus, Postulates a gravitational force holding the moon in its orbit, Proves that white light is a mixture of light of all colors, Nearly blinds himself by conducting optical experiments on his own eyes, Sight of a falling apple in an orchard focusses his attention on gravity, Realises that the force required to keep the moon in orbit round the earth (as stated by Kepler in his Third Law) is of the same kind as that operating in terrestrial gravity
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">1668-9 - Constructs first functioning reflecting telescope
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">1669 - Writes 'De analysi per æquationes numero terminorum infinitas' ('On Analysis by Infinite Series'), another milestone on the road to calculus
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">1671 - Barrow persuades Newton to allow him to demonstrate the telescope to the Royal Society, causes a sensation; Newton writes De methodis serierum et fluxionum (On the Method of Series and Fluxions), expounding the principles of calculus, though this is not published until 1736.
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">1671-1675 - Writes Of Natures Obvious Laws & Processes in Vegetation (unpublished, c. 1671–75)
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">1676 - Leibniz visits London in October and (without Newton's knowledge) is shown a copy of Newton's 'De Analysi' by John Collins. However, Leibniz has already independently established the fundamental principles of calculus, though (as he later acknowledges) he learns much from Newton's work on series expansion.
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">1679-80 - Correspondence with Hooke about the path of falling bodies provides Newton with the key dynamic concepts of inertia and centripetal attraction.
 * ======<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">1681 - Correspondence with Flamsteed about the comets of November and December 1680 which has important implications on Newton's understanding of gravity. ======
 * =====<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">1684 - Writing of the Principia as Halley visits Newton in August to discuss astronomical matters, particularly the notion of gravity. Correspondence with Flamsteed about the possibility of an attraction between Jupiter and Saturn. ; Publishes De Motu Corporum in Gyrum =====
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">1686 - Fully formulates his theory of universal gravitation: every object in the universe attracts and is attracted to every other object.
 * ======<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">1687 - July: publishes Philosophiæ naturalis principia mathematica (The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy), his masterwork on mechanics, fluids and gravity, which establishes his reputation as one of Europe's greatest scientific thinkers and mathematicians of his day. ======


 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">1690 - Maintains that all 'his' discoveries are in fact re-discoveries of 'prisca sapientia' ('ancient wisdom').
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">1693 - Suffers nervous breakdown, regains composure by end of year
 * ======<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">1699 - Fatio publishes a work asserting Newton's priority in the discovery of calculus and heavily implying that Leibniz stole the idea from him ======
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">1701-1725 - Publishes Reports as Master of the Mint
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">1704 - Publishes Opticks
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">1705 - Knighted
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">1707 - Publishes Arithmetica Universalis
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">1722 - Begins to suffer from bladder stones, delegates work
 * ======<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">1727 - Presides over his last Royal Society meeting on 19 Feb./2 March. Shortly afterward takes to his bed, suffering from a new bladder stone. Passes on, having refused the last rites on March 20, 1727. ======
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">1728 - Publishes The System of the World, Optical Lectures, The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms, (Amended) and De mundi systemate (published posthumously)
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">1733 - Publishes Observations on Daniel and The Apocalypse of St. John posthumously
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">1754 - Publishes An Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture posthumously

**<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">PUBLICATIONS ** <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: medium; line-height: normal;"> Newton published an edition of //<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Geographia generalis // <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: medium; line-height: normal;"> by the German geographer Varenius in 1672. His own letters on optics appeared in print from 1672 to 1676. Then he published nothing until the //<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Principia // <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: medium; line-height: normal;"> (published in Latin in 1687; revised in 1713 and 1726; and translated into English in 1729). This was followed by //<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Opticks // <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: medium; line-height: normal;">in 1704; a revised edition in Latin appeared in 1706. Posthumously published writings include //<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms Amended // <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: medium; line-height: normal;"> (1728), //<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The System of the World // <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: medium; line-height: normal;"> (1728), the first draft of Book III of the //<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Principia // <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: medium; line-height: normal;">, and //<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Observations upon the Prophecies of Daniel and the Apocalypse of St John // <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: medium; line-height: normal;"> (1733).

**<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">References ** <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">:

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">[]
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Newton's Laws of Motion **

http://outreach.atnf.csiro.au/education/senior/cosmicengine/galileo_newton.html
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation **<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newtonian_telescope
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Newtonian Telescope **<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-weight: normal;">http://www.ctlibrary.com/ch/1991/issue30/3041.html http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/prism.php?id=15 http://www.clas.ufl.edu/users/ufhatch/pages/01-Courses/current-courses/08sr-newton.htm
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Newton's Life (Timeline of Events)

<span style="-webkit-border-horizontal-spacing: 2px; -webkit-border-vertical-spacing: 2px; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: medium; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal; webkitborderhorizontalspacing: 2px; webkitborderverticalspacing: 2px;"> <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-weight: normal;"> http://numericalmethods.eng.usf.edu/anecdotes/newton.html

Isaac Newton and His Contributions to Calculus, An Honors Theses (ID499) by chris Edwards. Ball sate University, Muncie Indiana, May 1983. http://www.bsu.edu/libraries/virtualpress/student/honorstheses/pdfs/E39_1983EdwardsChris.pdf **<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">

robert e. krebs(2001) //<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Scientifc laws, principles and theories, a reference guide //<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">, United States of America, Greenwood Press

Arne Hessenbruch(Ed), Readers Guide to the history of science, United States of America, Fitzroy Dearborn publishers

Universe Today: newtonian Telescope, By Tammy Plotner http://www.universetoday.com/guide-to-space/telescopes/newtonian-telescope/

Last Year's History notes, that we didnt get :D []

http://www.newton.ac.uk/newtlife.html